comps reading - The Jasper Experiment: An Exploration of Issues in Learning and Instructional Design

This article described "The Jasper Woodbury Problem Solving Series," an illustration of "anchored" approach to instructional design, whereby instruction is situated in realistic, problem-rich settings. The theoretical framework underlying the series includes the following assumptions:

• Assumptions about goals: students learn to become independent learners
• Assumptions about learning:

1. constructive theories
2. generative learning
3. argumentation+reflection+refinement+sense-making
4. knowledge that is not acquired and used generatively tends to become what Whithead (1929) called "inert knowledge"-knowledge that is used spontaneously even though it is relevant (e.g., Bransford et al., 1986; Gick & Holyoak, 1980, 1983; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1985). Data indicate that knowledge is less likely to remain inert when it is acquired in a problem-solving mode rather than in a factual knowledge mode (Adams et al., 1988; Lockhart, Lamon, & Gick, 1988)

• Assumptions about instruction: cooperative learning setting

1. form community of inquiry
2. monitor one another
3. one of the differences between expert and novice is that experts can experience the changes in their own thinking that these ideas afford
4. self-generated information is better remembered than passively received information

• Assumptions about learning materials: concept of affordances

1. James Gibson (1977)
2. different types of instructional materials afford different kinds of learning activities

Based on these assumptions, there are seven design features underlying the Jasper Adventure Series. They, together with their respective hypothesized benefits, are listed below:

However, notice that whether these features are utilized depends on the teaching model at work in the classroom. In this article, three teaching models are mentioned:

• Model 1: basic first, immediate feedback, direct instruction
• Model 2: structured problem-solving

1. focus on the need to help students minimize errors and feelings of confusion
2. the greater the degree of guidance, the higher the probability that the students will not make errors
3. the strong point of this model is that students only work on correct plans; the tradeoff is that they do not engage in problem generation and monitoring

• Model 3: the "guided generation" model

1. emphasize the importance of generative activities on the part of students
2. make maximum use of the features afforded by the Jasper series
3. scaffolding concept: ZPD, Vygotsky

comps reading - Higher Level of Agency for Children in Knowledge Building: A Chellenge for the Design of New Knowledge Media

Written by Marlene Scardamalia and Carl Bereiter, though there's no ZPD mentioned in the title, this paper does talk about Vygotsky's theory and ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development). ZPD is not exclusive to children's learning, that is, both adults and children have ZPD where more knowledgeable others play essential role. However, according to our authors, there is a difference in executive control that is most salient in question-answer dialogue.

"Adults learners typically ask questions based on their perceived knowledge needs, whereas with school children, questions are typically asked by the teacher, based on the teachers' perception of the children's needs"

In the paper, the authors, based on evidence that children can produce and recognize educationally productive questions and can adapt them to their knowledge needs, introduced CSILE (Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environments), a computer supported knowledge medium that aims to design environments for students to use questions to guide their learning, so that they can higher their level of agency in learning.

CSILE is a networked system that gives students simultaneous access to a database that is composed of text and graphical notes that the students produce themselves and a means of searching and commenting on one another's contributions. Three models of teaching are described:

1. task model: student as doer or worker, students as the agent
2. knowledge-based model: Vygotsky's thinking
3. similar to knowledge-based model, with more emphasis on students to take over: both LOGO and CSILE employ this model; more of Piaget's thinking

The authors asked a key question: who is in charge of the zone of proximal development? To answer this question, we first need to know "what gos on in the ZPD." Two kinds of development need to be taken into account:

1. growth in the competencies directly involved in the activity
2. growth toward children's takeover of executive functions

As to who is in charge of ZPD, generally there are three different viewpoints: 1) mutual takeover; 2) learner takeover; and 3) more capable peers takeover. CSILE not only aims to scaffold learners to acquire the executive control in ZPD but also to achieve the goal of knowledge transforming, instead of mere knowledge telling.

Followed by the theoretical explanation, the authors introduced CSILE as to the interface and how to use it. To address whether or not children ask educationally productive questions in CSILE, the authors analyzed questions, be it their representation formats or questions type. In general, text-based questions facilitate bottom-up process, while knowledge-based questions help top-down process. Questions can also be categorized to basic info questions (uneducated guessing) and wonderment questions. Basic questions such as what are fossil fuels have a text-based quality and get quite directly at the kinds of information normally conveyed in basic text-based or encyclopedia treatments of a topic. Uneducated guessing questions are usually yes-no questions that have similar motivation to obtain basic orienting information, except that they take the form if shots in the dark at possible answers. As for wonderment questions, they reflect curiosity, puzzlement, skepticism, or a knowledge-based speculation, in contrast to a grouping for basic orienting information. Some examples of wonderment questions could be "Is everything either a fuel or needs a fuel?" "Can you make different fossil fuels by mixing other fossil fuels?" What kind of questions students are capable of asking depends on whether they have prior knowledge on that topic.

comps reading - How People Learn – Chapter4. How Children Learn

1.Theoretical framework of infants’ learning:
(1)Jean Piaget: the world of young infants is an egocentric fusion of the internal and external worlds and that the development of an accurate representation of physical reality depends on the gradual coordination of schemes of looking, listening, and touching.
(2)Vygotsky (1978): the active role of learner; zone of proximal development

2.Language acquisition cannot take place in the absence of shared social and situational contexts because the latter provide information about the meanings of words and sentences structures (Chapman, 1978). The child uses meaning as a clue to language rather than language as a clue to meaning (MacNamara, 1972).

3.Learning in children:
(1)Children have less memory capacity than adults.
(2)Children and adults have roughly the same mental capacity, but with development, children acquire knowledge and develop effective activities (i.e. strategies, e.g. rehearsal, elaboration, summarization, clustering).
(3)Metacognition

4.Three key finding concerning “Multiple strategies, strategies choices” emerging from studies: (P.98-100)
(1)discoveries are often made not in response to impasses or failures but rather in the context of successful performance
(2)short-lived transition strategies often precede more enduring approaches
(3)generalization of new approaches often occur very slowly, even when children can provide compelling rationales for their usefulness (Karmiloff-Smith, 1992; Kuhn, 1995; Siegler and Growley, 1991)

5.One of the applications of “multiple intelligences (proposed by Gardner, 1983, 1991: the existence of seven relatively autonomous intelligences: linguistic, logical, musical, special, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, (and intrapersonal, naturalistic 1997))” to education is the attempt to modify traditional curricula.

6.Children’s early understanding of the perceptual and physical world may jump-start the learning process, even making learning possible, but one should look with caution for ways in which early knowledge may impede later learning.

7.Children are both problem solvers and problem generators.

8.Children exhibit capacities that are shaped by environmental experiences and the individuals who care for them (e.g., caregivers, parents, playing the role of more capable facilitators, concept and application of “zone of proximal development”)